Gelyke Kanse and Others v Chairperson of the Senate of the University of Stellenbosch and Others

CONSTITUTIONAL COURT OF SOUTH AFRICA In the matter between: GELYKE KANSE DANIËL JOHANNES ROSSOUW PRESIDENT OF THE CONVOCATION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF STELLENBOSCH BERNARDUS LAMBERTUS PIETERS MORTIMER BESTER JAKOBUS PETRUS ROUX FRANCOIS HENNING ASHWIN MALOY RODERICK EMILE LEONARD and CHAIRPERSON OF THE SENATE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF STELLENBOSCH CHAIRPERSON OF THE COUNCIL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF STELLENBOSCH Case CCT 311/17 First Applicant Second Applicant Third Applicant Fourth Applicant Fifth Applicant Sixth Applicant Seventh Applicant Eighth Applicant Ninth Applicant First Respondent Second Respondent UNIVERSITY OF STELLENBOSCH Third Respondent Neutral citation: Gelyke Kanse and Others v Chairperson of the Senate of the University of Stellenbosch and Others [2019] ZACC 38 Coram: Mogoeng CJ, Cameron J, Froneman J, Jafta J, Khampepe J, Madlanga J, Mathopo AJ, Mhlantla J, Theron J, Victor AJ Judgments: Cameron J (unanimous): [1] to [51] Mogoeng CJ (concurring): [52] to [63] Froneman J (concurring): [64] to [98] Heard on: 8 August 2019 Decided on: 10 October 2019 Summary: Section 29(2) of the Constitution — “reasonably practicable” — constitutionality of the language policy of the University of Stellenbosch — Afrikaans as a medium of instruction – access to higher education Section 6 of the Constitution — protection and promotion of indigenous minority languages — diminished use and status ORDER On direct appeal from the High Court of South Africa, Western Cape Division, Cape Town: 1. 2. 3. 4. Leave to appeal is granted. The appeal is dismissed, with no order as to costs in this Court. The costs orders in the High Court are set aside. In their place is substituted: “There is no order as to costs.” 2 JUDGMENT CAMERON J (Mogoeng CJ, Froneman J, Jafta J, Khampepe J, Madlanga J, Mathopo AJ, Mhlantla J, Theron J and Victor AJ concurring): Introduction [1] At issue is the 2016 Language Policy (2016 Language Policy) of Stellenbosch University, the third respondent. The applicants challenge it. They are a voluntary association committed to equal chances for Afrikaans and all indigenous languages, together with six brown1 and white students of the University who wish to receive tuition in Afrikaans. I refer to them collectively as Gelyke Kanse.2 In proceedings in the High Court of South Africa, Western Cape Division, Cape Town (High Court) they sought to set aside the 2016 Language Policy and reinstate its predecessor, the University’s 2014 Language Policy (2014 Language Policy). The High Court rebuffed their challenge.3 They now seek leave to appeal against its finding. Background [2] In 2014, the University, after a twelve-year break,4 adopted a new language policy — the 2014 Language Policy.5 That Policy stipulated Afrikaans as well as English as the University’s languages of learning and instruction. It committed the 1 Gelyke Kanse itself, and the individual applicants concerned, used the term “brown Afrikaners” or “brown people” for persons sometimes referred to in South Africa as “coloured people” or “kleurlinge”. 2 “Gelyke Kanse” can be translated as “even chances”, “fair chances” or “equal opportunities”. 3 Kanse v The President of the Convocation of the Stellenbosch University 2017 JDR 1687 (WCC) (Dlodlo J and Savage J concurring) (High Court judgment) at paras 86 and 170. 4 The 2002 Language Policy emphasised single-medium Afrikaans tuition. Afrikaans was specified as the “default” option in the “hierarchy of language options” – but the Policy also provided for parallel medium teaching and, in exceptional cases, single-medium English tuition. There was also a “bilingual option” (T-Option). This envisaged teaching in both English and Afrikaans in the same class, but with not less than 50% Afrikaans being used. 5 In terms of section 27(2) of the Higher Education Act 101 of 1997 (the Act), in accordance with the Ministerial Language Policy for Higher Education of 2002 (LPHE). 3 CAMERON J institution to purposeful extension of the academic application of both languages. As the preferred options, where practically feasible and affordable, the 2014 Language Policy offered parallel medium teaching of undergraduate courses, in English and Afrikaans, with interpreting. In practice, this was mostly from Afrikaans to English. Postgraduate learning was in both English and Afrikaans, with significant use of English. The 2014 Language Policy envisaged promotion of isiXhosa as an emerging academic language, where feasible and affordable. [3] Under the 2014 Language Policy, at undergraduate level, a student wanting tuition in Afrikaans could obtain it in all courses and classes, while one seeking English tuition could not always do so: some classes, at least, would be in Afrikaans. In those cases, interpreting within the lecture aimed to bring non-Afrikaans-speakers up to speed in English. [4] After the Fees Must Fall and Open Stellenbosch upheavals on its campus during 2015, the University thought again. It appointed a working group to re-examine its language policy.6 After an arduous process the working group recommended a reformulation. This resulted in the 2016 Language Policy, which came into effect on 1 January 2017 and is at issue here. The 2016 Language Policy creates three language specifications – parallel, dual and single medium. Parallel medium – involving equal tuition in both English and Afrikaans – is used “where reasonably practicable and pedagogically sound”. Where not, classes are in dual medium. This means, in effect, teaching in English, with Afrikaans translation (as opposed to real-time interpreting), though questions and answers are conducted in Afrikaans. [5] The major change from the 2014 Language Policy was that the University now committed itself to a one hundred percent English offering of all classes. This means that students not conversant in Afrikaans can receive all their tuition in English. But while English tuition increased, there was no concordant increase in Afrikaans. This 6 The working group was chaired by Professor Antoinette van der Merwe. 4 CAMERON J means that Afrikaans students inevitably receive at least some tuition in English. Despite this fact, under the 2016 Language Policy, Afrikaans is still offered on large scale at undergraduate level. And, more pointedly, all first-year lectures continue to be offered in Afrikaans. [6] Although the University disputed that the 2016 Language Policy “invariably” reduces Afrikaans tuition – claiming “it merely reconfigures it” – this is not so. The 2016 Language Policy effectively gives preference to English in circumstances the Policy specifies. It does so in order to advance the University’s goals of equal access, multilingualism and integration. The 2016 Language Policy does maintain and preserve Afrikaans, but – crucially – this is now subject to demand and to available resources. [7] The practical effect is that, while undergraduate classes are still generally offered in Afrikaans, Afrikaans has lost its position of primacy. Instead it is placed on a sandy footing where the deluge of English predominance, both local and global, could well destabilise and eventually topple it. [8] This is what the applicants foresee and what they fear and what they seek to forestall in these proceedings by reinstating the 2014 Language Policy.7 In doing so, they invoke the precious right of mother tongue education, which is specifically enshrined in section 29(2) of the Bill of Rights.8 Gelyke Kanse’s argument goes more 7 In Ex parte Gauteng Provincial Legislature: In re Dispute Concerning the Constitutionality of Certain Provisions of the Gauteng School Education Bill of 1995 [1996] ZACC 4; 1996 (3) SA 165 (CC); 1996 (4) BCLR 537 (CC) (Gauteng Provincial Legislature), Sachs J at para 48 sought to articulate ways in which retention of Afrikaans would not collide with equity. He appeared to note that— “there exists amongst a considerable number of people in this country a genuinely-held, subjective fear that democratic transformation will lead to the down-grading, suppression and ultimate destruction of the Afrikaans language and the marginalisation and ultimate disintegration of the Afrikaans-speaking community as a vital group in South African society.” This may still be so 25 years after democracy. 8 Section 29(2) provides: “Everyone has the right to receive education in the official language or languages of their choice in public educational institutions where that education is reasonably practicable. In order to ensure the effective access to, and implementation of, this right, the state must consider all reasonable educational alternatives, including single medium institutions, taking into account— (a) equity; 5 widely, even. It invokes the value to us as human beings, as constitutive of our self-conception and elemental to our functioning as social beings, of the language or languages with which we grew up: CAMERON J “It is undoubtedly true that a mother tongue is not merely a linguistic system which can, with impunity, be replaced by another language. A child’s mother tongue is the language which allows [them] to impose a structure on the universe. It is associated with [their] thought processes, [their] sense of identity and [their] solidarity with [their] family and environment. As [they] mature, [their] mother tongue may become a symbol of regional or national pride, a means of gaining access to knowledge and wisdom. And it will usually be associated with feelings of warmth, intimacy, spontaneity.”9 High Court [9] The High Court judgment is detailed and comprehensive and it would be superfluous to repeat its constitutional and statutory expositions and analysis. The High Court concluded that the previous 2014 Language Policy fell foul of the “reasonably practicable” criterion in section 29(2) of the Constitution, while, by contrast, the 2016 Language Policy conformed with this standard.10 [10] Applying the Supreme Court of Appeal’s decision in AfriForum SCA11 (given that this Court had not yet heard AfriForum’s application for leave to appeal), the High Court held that the University’s 2016 Language Policy did not constitute administrative action.12 It thus fell to be reviewed under the principle of legality; but it passed muster (b) (c) practicability; and the need to redress the results of past racially discriminatory laws and practices.” 9 Innis Empire and Communications (Press Porcépic, Victoria 1986) at 130 as quoted in De Varennes Language Minorities and Human Rights: International Studies in Human Rights (Kluwer International Law, The Hague 1996) at 193. 10 High Court judgment above n 3 at para 86. 11 University of Free State v AfriForum [2017] ZASCA 32; 2017 (4) SA 283 (SCA) (per Cachalia JA; Swain JA, Mathopo JA, Fourie AJA and Schippers AJA concurring) (AfriForum SCA). 12 High Court judgment above n 3 at paras 66-7. 6 CAMERON J even under the stricter test of administrative review.13 The High Court scrutinised the process by which the 2016 Language Policy was adopted and concluded that it was neither irrational nor unfair.14 [11] The High Court concluded that the 2016 Language Policy did not violate section 29(2), which required a “context-sensitive analysis”.15 That provision’s test of “reasonable practicability”16 requires an assessment of what is fair, feasible and satisfies the need to remedy the results of past discriminatory laws and practices.17 Nor did the 2016 Language Policy infringe sections 29(1)(b) or 6(2)18 of the Constitution.19 The prohibition against retrogressive measures, where enshrined rights are currently being enjoyed, does not operate abstracted from changes in context and circumstances. The High Court found that the University had advanced “appropriate justification” for any possible reduction in Afrikaans tuition that inevitably flowed from the 2016 Language Policy.20 13 Id at para 113. 14 Id at paras 116-44. 15 Id at para 82 and Head of Department; Mpumalanga Department of Education v Hoërskool Ermelo [2009] ZACC 32; 2010 (2) SA 415 (CC); 2010 (3) BCLR 177 (CC) (Ermelo) at para 52. 16 Section 29(2) is set out in full above n 8. 17 High Court judgment above n 3 at para 28 and Ermelo above n 15 at para 53. 18 Section 6 of the Constitution, which forms part of Chapter One, headed “Founding Provisions”, reads in so far pertinent to the applicants’ case: “(1) (2) . . . (4) The official languages of the Republic are Sepedi, Sesotho, Setswana, siSwati, Tshivenda, Xitsonga, Afrikaans, English, isiNdebele, isiXhosa and isiZulu. Recognising the historically diminished use and status of the indigenous languages of our people, the state must take practical and positive measures to elevate the status and advance the use of these languages. The national government and provincial governments, by legislative and other measures, must regulate and monitor their use of official languages. Without detracting from the provisions of subsection (2), all official languages must enjoy parity of esteem and must be treated equitably.” 19 High Court judgment above n 3 at paras 106-9. 20 High Court judgment above n 3 at paras 85-6, applying the decision of this Court in Ermelo above n 15, where Moseneke DCJ, on behalf of the Court, at para 52 stated that “when a learner already enjoys the benefit of being taught in an official language of choice the state bears the negative duty not to take away or diminish the right without appropriate justification”. 7 CAMERON J [12] Gelyke Kanse invoked the fact that the 2016 Language Policy was dissonant from the 2002 Ministerial LPHE. The LPHE explicitly encourages multilingualism and envisages development of all indigenous languages as university mediums.21 It also acknowledges that, as a language of scholarship and science, Afrikaans “is a national resource”.22 In this, it commits to “ensuring that the capacity of Afrikaans to function as such a medium is not eroded”.23 Despite these affirmations, the High Court considered the LPHE, though an important guiding document, was not binding on the University.24 In adopting the 2016 Language Policy, the University was free to depart from the LPHE. And it had shown good reason why a departure was justified. In this Court [13] Gelyke Kanse contends not only that the 2016 Language Policy violates section 29(2), but that it also contravenes other constitutional provisions, including section 6(2), section 6(4), the equality clause and other provisions of the Bill of Rights. Leave to appeal and jurisdiction [14] A fundamental right is at issue. This Court plainly has jurisdiction. Gelyke Kanse however seeks leave to bypass the Supreme Court of Appeal and appeal directly to this Court. This requires special consideration. Interrelated factors weigh in its favour. The Supreme Court of Appeal pronounced recently and thoroughly on language rights, specifically Afrikaans, at tertiary level in AfriForum SCA. That judgment’s main findings and analysis were affirmed by this Court in AfriForum CC25 though, before this Court’s judgment, the High Court carefully considered and applied AfriForum SCA. This renders the desirability of a further appellate-level pronouncement in this area less pressing. And the High Court analysed the issues with 21 LPHE above n 5 at para 18.2. 22 Id at para 15.4. 23 Id. 24 High Court judgment above n 3 at para 110. 25 AfriForum v University of the Free State [2017] ZACC 48; 2018 (2) SA 185 (CC); 2018 (4) BCLR 387 (CC) (AfriForum CC). 8 CAMERON J deep-going rigour and thoroughness. That sets the table for the disposition of the issues in this Court, without a further intermediate appeal. [15] Though this Court denied the applicants in AfriForum CC leave to appeal, the factual setting and the issues Gelyke Kanse raises, as will emerge, are more complex. I would grant leave to appeal. Analysis [16] In advancing its case in this Court, Gelyke Kanse’s factual assertions ranged widely. Yet, despite the importance and the emotional intensity of the issues, we are obliged to play fair with the facts. The well-worn test for the disposition of cases brought on application26 requires that we decide the matter on the facts stated by the University, together with those Gelyke Kanse states that the University cannot deny, or of which its denials plainly lack credence and can be rejected outright on the papers. [17] So approached, it is clear that, though triggered by the upheavals of 2015 (which counsel for the University rightly called a “catalyst”), the process for adopting the 2016 Language Policy was thorough, exhaustive, inclusive and properly deliberative. Largely for the reasons the High Court set out in detail,27 the challenge to the Policy on process and rationality grounds must fail. [18] Gelyke Kanse also sought to introduce evidence showing that the 2016 Language Policy is currently being implemented in a way that gives warrant to its fears about side- lining Afrikaans. But the High Court rightly rejected this evidence,28 as must we. The 2016 Language Policy was implemented with effect from 1 January 2017. Gelyke Kanse’s challenge was brought before that, on 30 September 2016. That makes these proceedings a facial challenge to the 2016 Language Policy itself. They are not an “as- 26 Plascon-Evans Paints Ltd v Van Riebeeck Paints (Pty) Ltd [1984] ZASCA 51; 1984 (3) SA 623 (A) at 634E- 635C. 27 High Court judgment above n 3 at paras 116-44. 28 Id at paras 69-71. 9 CAMERON J applied” challenge. That means Gelyke Kanse cannot in its replying papers bring in evidence creating doubt about the legitimacy of the Policy because of how it is being applied. [19] This is not to stump Gelyke Kanse on technical points. It is to insist that a litigant should stick to the case it has set out in its challenge, and that it does not ambush its opponent in reply with a new case and new evidence entirely. Gelyke Kanse has ample remedies should the University betray the commitment to Afrikaans it embraced in the 2016 Language Policy. For now, the question before us must be, and be only, whether the University has sufficiently justified the diminished role for Afrikaans in the 2016 Language Policy, as issued, and not as applied. [20] This puts the focus where it should be, on Gelyke Kanse’s challenge based on the right to tertiary tuition in Afrikaans that the individual applicants claim under section 29(2) and section 6 of the Bill of Rights. Gelyke Kanse rightly contended that section 29(2) entails an enforceable right against the State to provide education in the language of the community so long as it is reasonably practicable. [21] At the outset, it is important to note two salient features of the right to language. One is that respect for language preference, where appropriate and reasonable, entails no special concession or privileged treatment. It flows from fundamental rights and values. It is an embodiment of the right to be treated equally and without discrimination, which inheres in everyone.29 It requires no special pleading for its recognition. 29 See De Varennes above n 9 at 117: “[T]he respect of language preferences of individuals, where appropriate and reasonable, flows from a fundamental human right and is not some special concession or privileged treatment. Simply put, it is the right to be treated equally without discrimination, to which everyone is entitled.” 10 CAMERON J [22] Second, it is established in international human rights law that the way in which that respect is practically realised must depend on what is appropriate and reasonable.30 Section 29(2) of our Bill of Rights recognises this. It accords the right to receive education in public educational institutions in a language of choice “where that education is reasonably practicable”. In this, the Constitution accords with international instruments.31 [23] It is also important to state that the constitutional test of “reasonable practicability” in determining whether the right in section 29(2) may be conferred is in essence synonymous with the test of “appropriate justification” for cutting it back, once afforded. It could be said that they are two sides of the same coin, the former dealing with the positive duty to fulfil the right, and the latter with the negative duty not to take it away, once enjoyed. In Ermelo, this Court stated: “In short, the reasonableness standard built into section 29(2)(a) imposes a context- sensitive understanding of each claim for education in a language of choice. An important consideration will always be whether the State has taken reasonable and positive measures to make the right to basic education increasingly available and accessible to everyone in a language of choice. It must follow that when a learner already enjoys the benefit of being taught in an official language of choice the State bears the negative duty not to take away or diminish the right without appropriate justification.”32 [24] Gelyke Kanse sought to differentiate between the two tests. It contended that, once the right had been afforded, “appropriate justification” was harder to surmount. 30 UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment No 21 “Right of Everyone to Take Part in Cultural Life” E/C.12/GC/21 (2009) at para 61 and see further De Varennes “Language Rights as an Integral Part of Human Rights” (2001) 3 International Journal of Multicultural Societies 15 at 20-1. 31 See Article 29 of the Universal Declaration of Linguistic Rights, 9 June 1996; Article 8 of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, 5 November 1992; Article 29(1)(c) of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, 20 November 1989; Article 12 of the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, 1 February 1995; Article 5 of the Convention Against Discrimination in Education, 14 December 1960; and Article 27 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 16 December 1966. 32 Ermelo above n 15 at para 52. 11 CAMERON J But the High Court rejected this contention,33 rightly invoking the reasoning in AfriForum SCA and University of Pretoria.34 Both judgments correctly affirm that Ermelo did not create two separate standards. Ermelo goes no further than reaffirming the distinction between positive and negative duties.35 [25] Gelyke Kanse developed its section 29(2) case in tandem with section 6(2), which recognises the State’s duty to take practical and positive measures to elevate the status of indigenous and diminished languages.36 Section 6(4) further requires national and provincial governments to regulate and monitor the use of official languages and ensure that they enjoy parity of esteem and equitable treatment.37 Universities as organs of State, the argument proceeded, must heed section 27(2) of the Act which requires universities to adopt language policies “subject to” the LPHE.38 In the light of all this, Gelyke Kanse urged, the 2016 Language Policy lacks meaningful guidelines, it directly discriminates against Afrikaans-speaking students, and diminishes Afrikaans tuition at the University in a way not justified on any basis. 33 High Court judgment above n 3 at paras 85-6. 34 AfriForum v Chairperson of the Council of the University of Pretoria 2017 JDR 0150 (GP) (Kollapen J) (University of Pretoria) at para 54. 35 As Currie and De Waal explain in The Bill of Rights Handbook 6 ed (Juta, Cape Town 2013) at 639: “[T]he Constitution recognises a right only to publicly funded mother-tongue education in an official language. Nevertheless, given that there are eleven official languages, the right imposes potentially onerous positive obligations. The subsection therefore contains an internal modifier. The right may only be claimed where instruction in an official language of choice is ‘reasonably practicable’. Where a learner already enjoys the benefit of being taught in an official language of choice the state bears the negative duty not to take away or diminish the right without appropriate justification.” 36 Afrikaans is “a creole language, a variant of the Dutch 17th century colonists, with some lexical and syntactical borrowings from Malay, Bantu languages, Khoisan languages, Portuguese and other European languages” (Currie “Official Languages” in Woolman et al (eds) Constitutional Law of South Africa Service 6 (2014) at 15, drawing on Gordon (ed) Ethnologue: Languages of the World 15 ed (2005) available at http://www.ethnologue.com). In Gauteng Provincial Legislature above n 7 at para 49, Sachs J described Afrikaans as “possibly the most creole or ‘rainbow’ of all South African tongues”. From a linguistic standpoint, Afrikaans is properly classified not only as a fully-fledged, independent language rather than a dialect, but also as a language indigenous to South Africa. 37 See section 6(4) as set out in full above n 18. 38 Section 27(2) of the Act provides: “Subject to the policy determined by the Minister, the council, with the concurrence of the senate, must determine the language policy of a public higher education institution and must publish and make it available on request.” 12 CAMERON J [26] Gelyke Kanse is correct in its assertion that the constitutional criterion of reasonable practicability is to be judged objectively, and that it requires an approach founded in evidence. But the evidence is against Gelyke Kanse. The evidence shows that, near-universally, brown and white-Afrikaans-speaking first-year entrants to the University are able to be taught in English. Conversely, though most entrants are able to receive tuition in Afrikaans, a significant minority cannot. [27] And, of course, as so often in our country, there is a hard racial edge to the differences these facts entail. Two aspects stand out. First, most black (in contradistinction to brown) new entrants to the University are not conversant enough to be able to receive tuition in Afrikaans. Second, seen as a bloc, the new entrants for whom Afrikaans is an obstruction are not brown or white, but overwhelmingly black. [28] The uneasy truth is thus that the primacy of Afrikaans under the 2014 Language Policy created an exclusionary hurdle for specifically black students studying at Stellenbosch. The racial colouring of the barrier is unavoidably freighted with implication. The evidence the University presented showed that elements of the 2014 Language Policy, when applied, left a sting. Separate classes in English and Afrikaans, or single classes conducted in Afrikaans, with interpreting from Afrikaans into English, made black students not conversant in Afrikaans feel marginalised, excluded and stigmatised. They were not proficient in Afrikaans, could not understand the lectures presented in Afrikaans or, where the balanced use of Afrikaans and English was offered, they felt stigmatised by real-time interpretation (which was almost solely used for translating lectures they could not understand). Also, less directly pertinent to the “right to receive education”, they felt excluded from other aspects of campus life, including residence meetings and official University events held in Afrikaans, without interpretation. [29] These facts Gelyke Kanse cannot, and it seems, does not, contest. Its response was, in the technical language of legal pleadings, confession and avoidance. It said, “Yes, but” – with its “but” being this: in contrast to what happened at the University of 13 CAMERON J the Free State in AfriForum CC, classes separated by language at Stellenbosch University were not racially distinct. The University contended this is because numbers of brown students prefer to be taught in Afrikaans (although it seems that most are either comfortable with, or prefer, tuition in English). This meant that, unlike AfriForum CC, where racial segregation was the reason for dispensing with Afrikaans as a medium of instruction, this was not so with the 2016 Language Policy. It was something subtler, but still palpable, and still substantial: the erection along racial lines of a barrier to full access to Stellenbosch’s learning and other opportunities. [30] That sting Gelyke Kanse sought to deflect by urging the University to ameliorate the exclusionary impact of Afrikaans by upping its parallel medium offering for all undergraduates in both Afrikaans and English. With fully parallel tuition in both English and Afrikaans, with brown, white and black students distributed across both mediums, there would be no marginalisation, no exclusion, no stigma. [31] The University conceded that this was feasible. But was it “reasonably practicable” in the sense of section 29(2), entitling Gelyke Kanse to insist on it? The University said No. The University determined by careful study that the cost of immediately changing to fully parallel medium tuition would total about R640 million in infrastructure (including additional classrooms), plus about R78 million each year thereafter for additional personnel costs. This would entail a 20% increase in fees, an additional R8 100 on top of the approximately R40 000 per year students on average pay now. Reasonably practicable? The University said No. [32] Gelyke Kanse cried foul when the University’s answering affidavits set out the cost as a justifying factor. It pointed out that cost did not specifically feature in either the working group processes or in the deliberations of Senate and Council when they adopted the 2016 Language Policy. Cost, Gelyke Kanse objects, is a belated make-do. This I think is incorrect. In almost any conceivable issue of institutional management, whether in a profit-driven or no-profit enterprise, cost is an inevitable consideration. The University was entitled to cite cost in answering Gelyke Kanse’s challenge since, 14 CAMERON J albeit inexplicit, it would all along have been a real and substantial factor in its attempts to figure out what it could do to improve the 2014 Language Policy. [33] In short, the University was entitled to defend the 2016 Language Policy by showing that the cost of offering all undergraduate courses in parallel English and Afrikaans, so that students not conversant in Afrikaans can have English tuition, but without diminishing Afrikaans, would be enormously, even if not prohibitively, expensive. [34] To this, Gelyke Kanse’s answer, which its counsel gave during argument, was that there are sources the University could tap to meet this cost. Counsel mentioned some. He alluded to wealthy alumni of the University who oppose diminishing the place of Afrikaans, and trust funds dedicated to protection of the heritage of Afrikaans. This does not seem to me to meet the point. Any institutional allocation of cost involves, not exactly a zero-sum calculation, but some detraction from resources that could be deployed elsewhere. The question is not whether the University could conceivably marshal the resources to sustain fully parallel English/Afrikaans undergraduate tuition, but whether doing so was reasonably practicable. [35] In this there was a judgment about cost, combined with a judgment about value. The University’s Senate and Council and executive officers made that judgment. They determined that the cost of sustaining fully parallel medium English/Afrikaans undergraduate tuition could not be justified, given other, often competing, claims on its resources. [36] Does the University’s judgment on this fail the Constitution’s “reasonably practicable” test? Largely for the reasons the University gives, and which the High Court upheld,39 I think not. The University’s determinative motivation for introducing the 2016 Language Policy was to facilitate equitable access to its campus 39 High Court judgment above n 3 at paras 51 and 90-3. 15 CAMERON J and to its teaching and learning opportunities by black students who are not conversant in Afrikaans. The University’s decision-making structures, with a scrupulous eye on racial equity, access and inclusiveness, judged that (a) a downward adjustment of Afrikaans, without by any means eliminating it, was warranted; and (b) taking into account the overall needs of the institution, the cost of avoiding the down-adjustment was too high. [37] The Supreme Court of Appeal’s decision in AfriForum SCA40 held that “reasonably practicable” in section 29(2) involves both a factual and normative (constitutional) element.41 This Court adopted and endorsed this approach in AfriForum CC.42 The University’s motivation and judgment on cost here accords with that analysis. Both the factual and normative elements the provision envisages were satisfied. [38] A different way to pose the dilemma Gelyke Kanse brings before us is this. Is it permissible under section 29(2), where tuition is being offered in an official language of choice at a public educational institution, to diminish that offering (while not extinguishing it) in order to enhance equitable access for those not conversant in that language, when the institution judges the cost of non-diminution too high? In my view the answer is Yes. [39] Both the facts at issue, and the doctrine articulated, in AfriForum CC support this conclusion. There, the University of the Free State abolished parallel medium classes, and, with them, Afrikaans as a medium of instruction, because black students chose English, and the students who wanted Afrikaans were white. This resulted in classes 40 AfriForum SCA above n 11 at para 27. 41 Ermelo above n 15 at paras 45-7 and 51-3. 42AfriForum CC above n 27 at paras 53-4. 16 CAMERON J segregating white students from black students. In these circumstances, this Court accepted that separate parallel classes gave rise to racial friction and antagonism.43 [40] Here, unlike at the University of the Free State, the University by no means abolished Afrikaans. Also dissimilar is that some students seeking tuition in Afrikaans are brown. This means that racial segregation of the kind at issue in AfriForum CC is not a feature. Nevertheless, the University’s evidence indicates that dual medium classes with interpreting from Afrikaans to English peripheralise and stigmatise black students not conversant in Afrikaans. That, together with the non-prohibitive but significant cost of upscaling to full parallelism means that sustaining the 2014 Language Policy was not reasonably practicable for the University. [41] This is to say that the exclusion of non-Afrikaans speakers from full participation in tuition and other institutional benefits seems to me a legitimate basis for upgrading English, while continuing to offer significant tuition in Afrikaans, even while sacrificing the previous primacy of Afrikaans. In this, a sliding scale of what is lost in language terms, and what is retained, as against the social justice objective sought to be attained, weighed together, where appropriate, with cost considerations, seems to me constitutionally justified.44 43 The dissentients, Froneman J, Cameron J and Pretorius AJ, objected that the Court did so, on this point, without oral argument or any specific factual basis. See AfriForum CC above n 25 per Froneman J at paras 96, 99-100 and 110-2. 44 De Varennes above n 30 at 21-2, suggests a “sliding scale model”: “Beginning at the lower end of what will be called a “sliding-scale model”, public officials should at the very least have official documents and forms available in appropriate areas where there is a low, though sufficient number of speakers of a minority language. As the numbers progressively get higher, in addition to bilingual or minority language documents, public officials would have to accept and respond to applications in a minority language. At the very top of the scale, there would have to be some kind of bilingual administration in districts where a minority language is used by a very high percentage of the population. This means that there would have to be a sufficient number of public officials who are in contact with the public in place to respond to the use of the non-official or minority language, and even that in these areas the minority language be used as an internal and daily language of work within public authorities. So the principle, based on the relevant treaty provisions or non-discrimination, would apply to all activities relating to “administrative or public authorities”, all areas of state involvement, including the judiciary, state education, state-provided health services, public broadcasting, etc. For example, where a sufficient number of students of a linguistic minority are concentrated territorially, it would be unreasonable - and in all likelihood be a breach of non-discrimination - for a state not to provide an appropriate degree of use of their language as medium of instruction in public schools. The degree of use of a minority language will vary according to what is “reasonable”, “appropriate” or 17 CAMERON J [42] Earlier, I noted it was the University’s own decision-making structures that “judged” that the cost of securing inclusivity in teaching, while not diminishing Afrikaans, was too high.45 Well, who are they to judge that? It is a good question. Certainly, the Court owes no obvious deference to the institution making the judgment. The Court must itself scrutinise the facts the institution advances for diminishing language-preferent tuition,46 while bearing in mind that it is a multifactored functional determination in which the judgment of those entrusted with the institution’s well-being should be accorded what this Court has called “appropriate respect”.47 This means that when considerations of cost are advanced, the Court’s scrutiny will necessarily be tempered by some measure not of deferring to a judgment that might not be sound,48 but rather of prudent worldly-wise caution in supplanting the judgment of experienced others. “practical” in each situation: the extent of demand for such instruction, the level of use of the minority language as medium of instruction, the state’s ability to respond to these demands, etc.” 45 See [31] and [35] above. 46 See Ermelo above n 15 at para 52. 47 It is in exactly this sense that this Court explained “deference” to administrative decision-making bodies in Bato Star Fishing (Pty) Ltd v Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism [2004] ZACC 15; 2004 (4) SA 490 (CC); 2004 (7) BCLR 687 (CC) (Bato Star) at para 48: “In treating the decisions of administrative agencies with the appropriate respect, a Court is recognising the proper role of the Executive within the Constitution. In doing so a Court should be careful not to attribute to itself superior wisdom in relation to matters entrusted to other branches of government. A Court should thus give due weight to findings of fact and policy decisions made by those with special expertise and experience in the field. The extent to which a court should give weight to these considerations will depend upon the character of the decision itself, as well as on the identity of the decision-maker. A decision that requires an equilibrium to be struck between a range of competing interests or considerations and which is to be taken by a person or institution with specific expertise in that area must be shown respect by the Courts. Often a power will identify a goal to be achieved, but will not dictate which route should be followed to achieve that goal. In such circumstances a Court should pay due respect to the route selected by the decision-maker. This does not mean however that where the decision is one which will not reasonably result in the achievement of the goal, or which is not reasonably supported on the facts or not reasonable in the light of the reasons given for it, a Court may not review that decision. A Court should not rubber-stamp an unreasonable decision simply because of the complexity of the decision or the identity of the decision-maker.” 48 See further on deference Bato Star id; Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism v Phambili Fisheries (Pty) Ltd; Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism v Bato Star Fishing (Pty) Ltd [2003] ZASCA 46; 2003 (6) SA 407 (SCA) at para 50; and Logbro Properties CC v Bedderson N.O. [2002] ZASCA 135; 2003 (2) SA 460 (SCA) at paras 20-1. 18 CAMERON J [43] This is not airy doctrine. It is practical. Chapter 4 of the Act,49 partly through each university’s institutional statute and rules,50 vests very considerable decision- making responsibilities and fiduciary duties in the council,51 senate,52 and executive governance structures53 of each higher education institution. Members of university councils and their committees must be persons “with knowledge and experience relevant to the objects and governance of the public higher education institution concerned”.54 These include both members of the university’s executive team55 and “outside” members of the council.56 No sensibly functioning higher education institution can afford to be without senior persons in its governance structures who are both skilled in finance and knowledgeable about the institution’s own needs, risks and opportunities. [44] Given this, then, what do we make of the University’s costs claims? It said that the additional 20% on top of existing student fees that Gelyke Kanse’s solution to its dilemma entailed was not reasonably practicable. It does not require deference to flinch from substituting that judgment. It requires only accepting that cost considerations, when scrupulously calculated, as here, and conscientiously propounded, as here, should weigh seriously with a court that adjudicates a claim of rights infringement under section 29(2). [45] Considering the facts and figures the University advances, it seems to me impossible to set aside or override its conclusion that it was not reasonably practicable 49 Sections 26-38 of the Act. 50 Section 32 of the Act. 51 Section 27 of the Act. 52 Section 28 of the Act. 53 Section 30 of the Act. 54 Section 27(7)(a) of the Act. 55 Section 27(4)(a) and (b) of the Act. 56 Section 27(4)(c) and (h) of the Act. 19 to introduce full parallel medium undergraduate teaching in order to avoid some CAMERON J diminution of Afrikaans.57 Broader considerations [46] Gelyke Kanse’s approach to whether Afrikaans is an “indigenous language” envisaged in section 6(2) seems to have fluctuated. It did not deny that, at least since Afrikaans supplanted Dutch as an official language in pre-democracy South Africa in 1925,58 Afrikaans has not been disadvantaged by “historically diminished use and status”, as contemplated by the provision.59 But Gelyke Kanse rightly insisted on Afrikaans’s indigeneity60 and that it was entitled anyhow under section 6(4) to “parity of esteem” as an official language, and hence that it “must be treated equitably”. The High Court mentions Gelyke Kanse’s section 6(4) argument61 but does not engage with it; “parity of esteem” and “treated equitably” as constitutional injunctions not detracting from section 6(2) may require consideration.62 57 It must be stated that the University certainly made a far more convincing case of setting out and explaining its cost considerations relating to the 2016 Language Policy than the constitutional duty-bearer, the City, did in City of Johannesburg Metropolitan Municipality v Blue Moonlight Properties 39 (Pty) Ltd [2011] ZACC 33; 2012 (2) SA 104 (CC); 2012 (2) BCLR 150 (CC) at paras 68-75, where the City spoke “in the vaguest terms” about affordability. 58 By the enactment of the Official Languages of the Union Act 8 of 1925. 59 High Court judgment above n 3 at para 107. In Ermelo above n 15 at para 47, Moseneke DCJ on behalf of the Court explained that “[s]ection 6(1) read with section 6(2) warrants and widens the span of our official languages from a partisan pair to include nine indigenous languages which for long have jostled for space and equal worth”. 60 See above n 36. 61 High Court judgment above n 3 at para 14. 62 Afrikaans enjoys protection under section 6(4) as the section speaks of “official languages”. However, unlike the positive duty placed upon the State by section 6(2) to take “practical and positive measures”, the duty imposed by section 6(4) is not oriented towards a strongly normative goal. It affords the State a wide margin in implementing its policy for the use of official languages. The subsection is thus a conserving constraint on government’s existing use and practice of official languages like Afrikaans. This is so because it explicitly stipulates that this does not detract from the corrective measures required by section 6(2) but rather seeks to ensure that, in doing so, no official language is disregarded or treated inequitably. Section 3(2) of the interim Constitution, in fact, explicitly required non-diminution: “Rights relating to language and the status of languages existing at the commencement of this Constitution shall not be diminished, and provision shall be made by an Act of Parliament for rights relating to language and the status of languages existing only at regional level, to be extended nationally in accordance with the principles set out in subsection (9).” See also section 3(5) of the interim Constitution, which provides for provinces to determine their own official languages. 20 CAMERON J [47] Gelyke Kanse implored the Court to set aside the 2016 Language Policy. Upholding the University’s policy change, counsel urged, would signal the end of Afrikaans as a language of tertiary instruction. While counsel’s plea on behalf of indigenous languages other than Afrikaans may have seemed opportunistic, the dire entreaty compels reflection. Endorsing the University’s 2016 Language Policy as conforming with section 29(2) comes at a cost. Our judgment must acknowledge it. [48] Afrikaans has been recognised in this Court as “one of the cultural treasures of South African national life”.63 The flood-tide of English risks jeopardising the precious value of our entire indigenous linguistic heritage. Gelyke Kanse is entitled to invoke that risk. This is because the march of history both in South Africa and globally seems relentlessly hostile to minority languages, including Afrikaans, which is the mother tongue of some seven million64 on a planet inhabited by seven billion people. [49] But that is not the University’s burden, as little is the fact that Afrikaans has all but vanished at other tertiary institutions, barring only one other.65 And the dilemmas the global march of English poses is not the question before the Court. Yet we should not miss the cost that the diminution of Afrikaans at the University entails not only for Gelyke Kanse and its adherents, but for our world, and for ourselves.66 63 Gauteng Provincial Legislature above n 7 at para 49. 64 Statistics South Africa South African National Census of 2011 (Report No. 03-01-41, 2012) at 23. 65 The Potchefstroom campus of North-West University. First PhD written 66 There is however also cause for hope. While indigenous languages do not (yet) enjoy parity of esteem at tertiary level, in 2017, Rhodes University awarded its first PhD in isiXhosa: Mahlakoana “PhD Written in isiXhosa Hailed as Milestone” IOL (23 April 2017) available at https://www.iol.co.za/news/south-africa/phd-written-in-isixhosa- hailed-as-milestone-8779991. The University of Fort Hare followed suit in 2018: “History Made As Fort Hare Awards at available isiXhosa” News24 https://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/history-made-as-fort-hare-awards-first-phd-written-in-isixhosa- 20181023. This matches a growing trend in South African popular culture: in telenovelas such as The Queen and The River both set in Gauteng embracing Setswana, isiZulu, isiXhosa, The Throne which is set in Magaliesburg and embraces Setswana. Skeem Saam is set in Turfloop and embraces Sepedi, Muvhango is set in Venda and embraces Tshivenda, 7de Laan and Binnelanders are set in Johannesburg and embrace Afrikaans. Finally, in April 2019, South Africa celebrated the first-ever Xitsonga telenovela, Giyani: Land of Blood which is set in Giyani. See Hlalethwa “‘Giyani’ Translates to Viewers” Mail & Guardian (12 April 2019) available at https://mg.co.za/article/2019-04-12-00-giyani-translates-to-viewers. (23 October 2018) in 21 CAMERON J / MOGOENG CJ Costs [50] The High Court, like AfriForum SCA ordered costs against Gelyke Kanse. Before this Court, the University – recognising early that the costs order was at odds with Biowatch,67 which protects constitutional litigants against adverse costs orders when litigating against organs of state – abandoned that award. The High Court, however, made a separate award against Gelyke Kanse in respect of its misbegotten attempts to expand its case in reply and its failed resistance to an order striking out additional material in its reply. While counsel for the University did not disavow those costs when directly asked about them, he did not seek to cling to them. I appreciate that the High Court exercised its discretion in awarding those adverse costs, but would intervene to set them aside on the basis that, viewed overall, and notwithstanding its adventitious mistakes, Gelyke Kanse never forfeited its Biowatch shield. Clearly there should be no costs award in this Court Order [51] The following order is made: 1. 2. 3. 4. Leave to appeal is granted. The appeal is dismissed, with no order as to costs in this Court. The costs orders in the High Court are set aside. In their place is substituted: “There is no order as to costs.” MOGOENG CJ (Cameron J concurring): [52] Stellenbosch University felt constrained to revise its 2014 Language Policy in order to keep up with the access to education demands of the times. The central features 67 Biowatch Trust v Registrar Genetic Resources [2009] ZACC 14; 2009 (6) SA 232 (CC); 2009 (10) BCLR 1014 (CC) (Biowatch). 22 of its new policy, the 2016 Language Policy, that have engaged us, read in relevant parts: MOGOENG CJ “7.1.3 For undergraduate modules where it is reasonably practicable and pedagogically sound to have more than one class group: 7.1.3.1 There are separate lectures in Afrikaans and English. . . . 7.4.1.2 The Afrikaans offering is managed so as to sustain access to [Stellenbosch University] for students who prefer to study in Afrikaans and to further develop Afrikaans as a language of tuition where reasonably practical.” [53] The words “reasonably practicable” and “access” are not a product of the University’s creativity, but an unmistakable consequence of its set determination not to veer off the dictates of the Constitution in relation to the right to instruction in one’s language of choice. For section 29(2) of our Constitution says: “Everyone has the right to receive education in the official language or languages of their choice in public educational institutions where that education is reasonably practicable. In order to ensure the effective access to, and implementation of, this right, the state must consider all reasonable educational alternatives, including single medium institutions, taking into account— (a) (b) (c) equity; practicability; and the need to redress the results of past racially discriminatory laws and practices.” [54] The University had English and Afrikaans as co-equal mediums of instruction for years before the impugned policy-shift came into being. The need for change was subsequently identified. Hence, the 2016 Language Policy that birthed this application. And a question does arise whether the pre-existing position could not perhaps have been maintained as long as some of our people desire to be taught in Afrikaans. On this, this Court has previously said: 23 MOGOENG CJ “At a conceptual level, dual medium institutions might well exist without necessarily nurturing or perpetuating unfair advantage or racial discrimination and its exceedingly harmful tendencies. When that is so, then the right to be taught in a language of choice could be effectively accessible and implemented. That, by the way, is what the University did or hoped to achieve when it moved from a dispensation of Afrikaans as the sole medium of instruction to one where English and Afrikaans enjoyed equal status as media of instruction. It did so to facilitate equitable access for the previously excluded who are mostly better acquainted with English so that they too, could utilise this vital public resource for honing in their much-needed skills.”68 [55] I reiterate that one of the critical features of the 2016 Language Policy-direction is said to be the need to facilitate access to education for those students who are not proficient in Afrikaans and are predominantly siXhosa-speaking. This is set to be achieved with due regard to the pre-existing entitlement of some students to be taught in Afrikaans. Additionally, the financial burden that comes with maintaining the two language streams struck the University as being just too onerous to bear. And the reasonable practicability of and effective access to, being taught in a language of choice must, regard being had to considerations of equity, practicability and the need to redress, be counterbalanced with the need to facilitate access to education through any medium even if some might, given a choice, not have preferred it. [56] On that need to have our institutions of education accessible to all with due regard to the reasonable practicability of receiving education in a language of choice, we also said: “Educational institutions are also grappling with challenges of access to opportunities to study or enrol for high cost disciplines like medical sciences and engineering where space is very limited. For these reasons, effective access to the right to be instructed in an official language of choice must be given effect to, but without undermining equitable access, preserving exclusivity or perpetuating racial supremacy. It would be unreasonable to wittingly or inadvertently allow some of our people to have unimpeded access to education and success at the expense of others as a direct consequence of a 68 AfriForum CC above n 25 at para 51. 24 blind pursuit of the enjoyment of the right to education in a language of choice. This, in circumstances where all could properly be educated in one common language.”69 MOGOENG CJ [57] That access must of course be addressed with due sensitivity to the reality that students, desirous of being instructed in Afrikaans, would as in this case, have had that choice available to them all along. Taking away that enjoyment or minimising its availability must be permissible only for good reason. That prejudicial step may not be taken lightly, insensitively, maliciously or inconsiderately. In the belief that parts of section 29(2) of the Constitution, concerning the assertion of the right on the one hand and how to give practical expression to it on the other, are not to be construed disjunctively but conjunctively. We have had occasion to express ourselves in these terms, particularly on the need for “appropriate justification”:70 “Reasonableness within the context of section 29(2) demands that equity, practicability and the critical need to undo the damage caused by racial discrimination, also be the intrinsic features of the decision-making process relating to effective access to education in a language of choice. For they are some of the decisive factors to which regard must be had even where ‘a learner already enjoys the benefit of being taught in an official language of choice.’ Inequitable access and the unintended entrenchment or fuelling of racial disharmony would thus be the ‘appropriate justification’ for taking away or diminishing the already existing enjoyment of the right to be taught in one’s mother tongue.”71 [58] Although facts may point to how a principle is to be applied to them, facts do not redefine a principle. A principle, particularly one that is constitutional in character, remains fundamentally unaffected by the dissimilarity of facts in different cases. Like the Constitution from which it is sourced, it ought to be applied to all subsequent matters to which it is relevant even if the new facts are different from those of the case in which the principle was first laid down. For this reason, while the facts in AfriForum CC 69 Id at para 49. 70 The term “appropriate justification” was first used in Ermelo above n 15 at para 52. 71 AfriForum CC above n 25 at para 50. 25 MOGOENG CJ admittedly had more to do with blunt racial segregation or overtones than here, the principles we enunciated in relation to reasonable practicability, the need for redress and access to education, apply with equal force to this matter. [59] The understanding and application of reasonable practicability and the need to equitably enhance access to education for all, as they have arisen here, stand to be guided by our articulation of these principles in AfriForum CC. That is what fidelity to precedent demands of us. [60] I agree with Cameron J that, in effect, it is neither reasonably practicable nor equitable to adhere to the position that was obtained before the 2016 Language Policy came into being. It indeed frustrates access to education by many. In his judgment I concur. [61] With all that done and dusted, it needs be said that Afrikaans is indeed an African language, our historic pride to be treasured by all citizens. Its existence precedes colonialism. And its subsequent development with the appropriately enriching infusion of terms from Dutch or any other European language and the unjust attempt to impose it on others, do not at all affect its original African DNA. [62] Our highly challenged fiscus has however, imposed a constraint on us to share all the acutely limited public resources among ourselves as generously as considerations of justice, equity and reconciliation, informed by reasonable practicability, permit us to. As a result, it is most fitting to appeal particularly to our corporate citizens’ spirit of generosity, to help preserve Afrikaans, and develop other indigenous languages, as essential tools for knowledge impartation and comprehension. And that they can do by deploying resources to the establishment of private institutions of learning envisaged by section 29(3) of the Constitution, which would obviously not be driven by any sinister agenda to discriminate against others on any unconstitutional basis 26 MOGOENG CJ / FRONEMAN J [63] None of the dignity-restoring and enhancing aspirational measures laid down in our Constitution should deliberately or inadvertently, be rendered unworthy of the constitutional space they occupy. Plans to enhance the status and promote the use of indigenous languages, in line with section 6 of our Constitution, must thus be developed and kept ready for implementation as soon as the contestation for our scarce resources, by key national priority areas, has ebbed out. Where immediate implementation is reasonably practicable it would arguably serve us well to act. And that process would hopefully extend to the possible recognition and equal development of all spoken languages of the First Nation people. FRONEMAN J (Cameron J concurring): [64] It is always a pleasure to read the Dit is altyd ‘n voorreg om my elegant and persuasive judgments of my ampsbroeder, Cameron R, se elegante en brother Cameron J. His judgment here meevoerende uitsprake te lees. Weereens (first judgment) is no exception. I is dit geen uitsondering nie. Ek stem concur in its reasoning and outcome. saam met die eerste uitspraak se The first reason for doing so is that we redevoering en uitslag. Die eerste rede are, of course, bound by this Court’s daarvoor is natuurlik dat ons gebonde is judgment in AfriForum CC on which the aan hierdie Hof se uitspraak in first judgment builds. My separate AfriForum CC, waarop die eerste concurrence does not question the legal uitspraak voortbou. My afsonderlike reasoning underlying the first uitspraak bevraagteken nie die judgment’s adherence to AfriForum CC, onderliggende regsbeginsels van die nor the legal reasoning of AfriForum CC eerste uitspraak se bevestiging en itself. Judicial precedent is a ondersteuning van AfriForum CC nie. fundamental aspect of the rule of law.72 Regspresedent is grondliggend tot ’n This binding precedent is buttressed by regstaat en die legaliteitsbeginsel.72 Maar 72 Turnbull-Jackson v Hibiscus Coast Municipality [2014] ZACC 24; 2014 (6) SA 592 (CC); 2014 (11) BCLR 1310 (CC) at paras 54-6. 27 FRONEMAN J recognising that, substantively, South hierdie bindende regspresedent word Africa’s history and current inequality ondersteun deur die substantiewe entail that the white Afrikaans-speaking erkenning dat ons Suid-Afrikaanse minority, because of its historically and geskiedenis en huidige ongelykheid currently privileged position, cannot beteken dat wit Afrikaanssprekendes nie exact the same treatment as historically dieselfde behandeling as voorheen disadvantaged minorities.73 The benadeelde taalminderheidsgroepe kan substantive advantages Afrikaans-language minority the has verwag nie.73 Die wesenlike voordele wat Afrikaanssprekendes geniet het in generally enjoyed, in contradistinction teenstelling met ander taalminderhede to other linguistic minorities, makes this maak dit onvermydelik. inevitable. [65] Why, then, a separate Waarom ‘n afsonderlike instemmende concurrence? Simply put it is because, uitspraak? Omdat, eenvoudig gestel, die looking to the future, I believe a pad vorentoe ‘n waarskuwing inhou. cautionary tale is needed. [66] The first judgment candidly Die eerste uitspraak verklaar rondborstig declares that “[e]ndorsing the dat “[e]ndorsing the University’s 2016 University’s 2016 Language Policy as Language Policy as conforming with conforming with section 29(2) comes at section 29(2) comes at a cost. Our a cost. Our judgment must acknowledge judgment must necessarily acknowledge it”.74 It recognises that the “flood-tide of it”.4 Dit erken dat die vloedgolf van English” is a real threat to minority Engels ‘n daadwerklike risiko inhou vir languages, including Afrikaans.75 It minderheidstale as onderrigtale, 73 Tshwane City v AfriForum [2016] ZACC 19; 2016 (6) SA 279 (CC); 2016 (9) BCLR 1133 (CC) at para 120 and AfriForum CC above n 25 at para 134. 74 First judgment at [47]. 75 Id at [48]: “The flood-tide of English risks jeopardising the precious value of our entire linguistic heritage. Gelyke Kanse is entitled to invoke that risk. This is because the march of history both in South 28 FRONEMAN J proceeds then to state that this risk is not insluitend Afrikaans.5 Dit is nie die Stellenbosch University’s burden, nor is Universiteit van Stellenbosch se las nie, the fact that Afrikaans has all but so ook nie die feitlike verdwyning van vanished as a language of instruction at Afrikaans van ander têrsiêre instellings other tertiary institutions.76 I think it nie.6 Ek dink dit sal waardevol vir die may be helpful for the future if we toekoms wees om na te gaan wat die explore what that cost is and who will gevolge is en wie uiteindelik die las have to bear the burden of carrying it. daarvan sal dra. [67] The structure I will follow to do Die werkswyse sal wees om eers— this is first to— (a) my siening van die substantiewe (a) set out my understanding of regverdiging vir die gebruik the substantive justification van verskillende taalonderrig in AfriForum CC and the first modelle op têrsiêre vlak in judgment for the use of AfriForum CC en die eerste different models of language uitspraak uiteen te sit; en dan instruction at tertiary (b) die impak daarvan op education level; and then verskillende taalsprekers by (b) translate the impact of that die Universiteit van into the practical effect it has Stellenbosch en verder on different language landswyd in praktiese terme te speakers at Stellenbosch verduidelik. University and nationally. Op grond van hierdie analise sal ek dan On the basis of this analysis, I will then die gevolge van ons regspraak oor attempt to tease out the cost our taalkeuse onder die Grondwet probeer Africa and globally seems relentlessly hostile to minority languages, including Afrikaans, which is the mother-tongue of some seven million on a planet inhabited by seven billion people.” 76 Id at [49]: “[T]hat is not the University’s burden, as little is the fact that Afrikaans has all but vanished at other tertiary institutions, barring only one other. And the dilemma the global march of English poses is not the question before the Court. Yet we should not miss the cost that the diminution of Afrikaans at Stellenbosch entails not only for Gelyke Kanse and its adherents, but for our world, and for ourselves.” 29 FRONEMAN J jurisprudence on language choice under ontrafel – en ondersoek doen oor wie dan the Constitution exacts – and on whom die las daarvan sal dra. the burden of carrying that cost will fall. Substantive justification Substantiewe regsverdiging [68] The underlying rationale for the Beide AfriForum CC en die eerste outcome that both AfriForum CC and uitspraak druk die onderliggende rede vir the first judgment articulate is that the die uitslag uit as een waar die gebruik van use of Afrikaans as a medium of Afrikaans as onderrigmedium daartoe lei instruction leads to the exclusion or dat swart studente gestigmatiseer word.77 stigmatisation of black students.77 Omdat meeste Afrikaanssprekende Because most Afrikaans-speaking studente Engels magtig is, maar swart students are proficient in English, but studente nie eweneens Afrikaans magtig black students are not co-equally is nie, word ‘n taalbeleid wat voorkeur proficient in Afrikaans, policies that aan Engels as onderrigmedium verleen as favour English as medium of instruction normatief redelik geag.78 Dit volg uit die are judged normatively reasonable.78 konteks van historiese en huidige This emerges from the context of the institusionele voorregte wat wit historical and current institutional Afrikaanssprekendes geniet het en steeds privileges that white Afrikaans-speakers geniet.79 enjoyed and still enjoy.79 [69] This justification has an Hierdie regverdiging het gevolge. Daar is entailment. It exacts an inexorable price ‘n onverbiddelike prys wat betaal moet from any form of language instruction word vir enige vorm van taalonderrig in where Afrikaans is sought to be used. Afrikaans. 77 Id at [30] and [40] and AfriForum CC above n 25 at para 62. 78 See the discussion of “reasonableness” in AfriForum CC above n 25 at para 53. 79 Id at para 2. 30 FRONEMAN J [70] It is most obvious in the provision Die mees voor-die-hand-liggende of single-medium Afrikaans instruction voorbeeld is enkel-medium Afrikaanse where that automatically results in the onderrig wat outomaties uitsluiting van exclusion of black students. The same swart studente tot gevolg het. Dieselfde applies to dual-medium instruction, geld vir dubbel-medium Afrikaanse where the need to have Afrikaans onderrig waar die vertaling van lectures translated into English for black Afrikaanse lesings in Engels tot die students leads to their stigmatisation. stigmatisering van swart studente lei. [71] That leaves parallel-medium Wat oorbly is parallel-medium onderrig. instruction. Some may argue that the Dit kan geargumenteer word dat die AfriForum CC finding that parallel- AfriForum CC formulering – dat medium instruction inevitably results in parallel-medium onderrig onvermydelik segregation and, with it, indirect segregasie meebring, en daarmee saam discrimination,80 finds application even ook indirekte diskriminasie,80 ook geld where brown or coloured learners are waar bruin studente geskei word van segregated from black learners.81 The swart studente.81 Die eerste uitspraak first judgment avoids this conclusion,82 ontduik hierdie afleiding82 deur eerder but instead finds normative justification normatiewe regverdiging vir die for deviating from full parallel-medium afwyking van volle parallel-medium instruction on reasonable cost-related onderrig te vind in redelike koste-gerigte impracticability grounds.83 praktiese uitvoerbaarheidsgronde.83 80 Id at paras 75-6. 81 Compare Bishop “The Challenge of Afrikaans Language Rights in South African Education” in Fredman, Campbell and Taylor (eds) Human Rights and Equality in Education: Comparative Perspectives on the Right to Education for Minorities and Disadvantaged Groups (Policy Press, Bristol 2018) at 88. 82 First judgment at [44] to [45]. 83 Id at [40] to [41]. 31 FRONEMAN J Practical effect Praktiese effek [72] In practical terms, this normative In praktiese terme beteken dit dat op justification means that at Stellenbosch— Stellenbosch— (a) alle eerstetaal Engels- (a) all first-language English- sprekendes wat dit verkies, speakers who so choose will voor- en nagraadse onderrig in receive instruction in English at Engels sal ontvang; both graduate and post-graduate (b) alle tweedetaal Engels- level; sprekendes wat dit verkies, (b) all second-language English- voor- en nagraadse onderrig in speakers who also choose Engels sal ontvang; English will receive instruction (c) eerstetaal Afrikaans- in English at graduate and post- sprekendes wat Afrikaans graduate level; verkies, sal voorgraads (c) first-language Afrikaans- afgewaterde onderrig in speakers who choose Afrikaans Afrikaans in verskillende will receive a diminished form variasies ontvang. Andersins of Afrikaans instruction, in sal dit in Engels wees. Op varying degrees, and otherwise nagraadse vlak sal hulle in English at graduate level. At onderrig slegs in Engels post-graduate level they will ontvang; en receive instruction only in (d) eerstetaal siXhosasprekendes English; and wat isiXhosa verkies sal nie (d) first-language siXhosa-speakers die geleentheid gebied word who wish to choose isiXhosa om dit te doen nie, maar sal op will not be able to do so, but progressiewe wyse bygestaan may be progressively assisted in word in daardie taal soos die that language as the 2016 2016 Beleid ontwikkel. Language Policy develops. 32 FRONEMAN J [73] First-language English-speakers Eerstetaal Engelssprekendes is meestal are mostly white people; first-language witmense; eerstetaal Afrikaans- Afrikaans-speakers are mostly white sprekendes is meestal wit- en bruinmense; and brown people; first-language eerstetaal siXhosa-sprekendes is meestal siXhosa-speakers are mostly black swartmense en tweedetaal people; and second-language English Engelssprekendes sluit swart-, bruin- en speakers comprise black, brown and witmense in.84 In die Wes-Kaap white people.84 In the Western Cape, verteenwoordig eerstetaal first-language Afrikaans-speakers Afrikaanssprekers amper helfte van die constitute almost exactly half of the bevolking (49.6%), eerstetaal siXhosa- provincial population (49.6%) while sprekendes amper ‘n kwart (24.7%) en first-language siXhosa-speakers eerstetaal Engelssprekendes slegs ‘n constitute one quarter (24.7%) and vyfde (20.2%).85 English-speakers only one fifth (20.2%).85 [74] This situation is replicated Hierdie stand van sake word landswyd countrywide: herhaal: (a) All first-language English- (a) Alle eerstetaal Engels- speakers who choose English sprekendes wat dit verkies, will receive instruction in kan voor- en nagraadse English at both graduate and onderrig in Engels ontvang by post-graduate level at any enige universiteit in Suid- university in South Africa; Afrika; (b) All second-language English- (b) Alle tweedetaal Engels- speakers who also choose sprekendes wat dit verkies, English will receive kan voor- en nagraadse instruction in English at onderrig in Engels ontvang by 84 I use these terms (black, brown and white people) because that is still how our demographics are described in legislation and in the University’s policy documents, despite our Constitution’s non-racial aspirations. 85 See Statistics South Africa Census 2011 Provincial Profile: Western Cape (Report No. 03-01-70, 2014) at 26. 33 FRONEMAN J graduate and post-graduate enige universiteit in Suid- level at any university in South Afrika; Africa; (c) Eerstetaal Afrikaans- (c) First-language Afrikaans- sprekendes wat Afrikaans speakers who choose verkies, sal by die Universiteit Afrikaans will receive a van Stellenbosch afgewaterde diminished form of instruction onderrig in Afrikaans ontvang at Stellenbosch University in en onderrig in Afrikaans met Afrikaans and instruction in Engelse vertaling by die Afrikaans with English Potchefstroom kampus van die interpretation at the Noordwes Universiteit;86 en Potchefstroom campus of the (d) Eerstetaalsprekendes van North-West University;86 and enige ander inheemse Afrika- (d) First-language speakers of tale wat onderrig daarin other indigenous African verkies sal nie die geleentheid languages who wish to choose gebied word om dit by enige their language as a medium of universiteit te doen nie, instruction will not be able to behalwe tot die beperkte do so at any university, except omvang wat enige van hierdie to the limited extent that these universiteite hulp in hul eie universities may offer taal mag aanbied om die assistance to them in their own Engelse onderrigmedium beter language to supplement the onder die knie te kry. main English language medium of instruction. [75] One does not need international Mens benodig nie internasionale studies studies, of which there are many,87 to nie, waarvan daar vele is,87 om te besef 86 See North-West University “Multilingualism”, available at http://www.nwu.ac.za/content/nwu- multilingualism. 87 See, for example, Phillipson Linguistic Imperialism (Oxford University Press, Oxford 1992). 34 FRONEMAN J realise that this state of affairs dat hierdie stand van sake Engels as entrenches English as the dominant dominante taal bevestig, nie net op language not only in tertiary education, têrsiêre vlak nie, maar, soos ons sal sien, but also, as we will see, from primary ook vanaf laerskool na hoërskool tot by through secondary school to university. universiteit. Menings mag wissel oor die Opinions may differ on whether this is a wysheid hiervan, maar dit is seer good or bad thing, but it seems strange eienaardig dat hierdie Hof, die for this Court, the ultimate protector of uiteindelike bewaker van minority language rights under the minderheidstaalregte ingevolge die Constitution, to give its blessing to this Grondwet, sy goedkeuring daaraan gee. result. Burdens and benefits Laste en voordele [76] Cameron J speaks of the “racial Cameron R praat van die rasse-byt edge” to all of this in relation to white (“racial edge”) wat hierdie het met Afrikaans-speakers.88 But the “racial betrekking tot wit Afrikaans- edge” has some further, and rather sprekendes.88 Hierdie rasse-aspek het surprising, consequences too. The first egter ook ander, soms verrassende, is that the other main beneficiaries – and gevolge. Die eerste is dat die ander mede- bearers – of our colonial and apartheid bevoorregtes en -draers van ons koloniale past, white English-speakers, come out en apartheidsgeskiedenis, wit tops (and thus linguistically unscathed) Engelssprekendes, heelhuids daarvan as far as choice of language of afkom (met hul taalregte ongeskaad) wat instruction is concerned. The second is die uitoefening van taalonderrigkeuse that English second-language speakers betref. Die tweede is dat diegene wat die who have the best chance of becoming beste kans staan om akademies in Engels academically proficient in English at as ‘n tweede taal oor die weg te kom, juis tertiary level are those who can afford to persone sal wees wat dit kan bekostig om attend private, independent English skoolonderrig te ontvang by onafhanklike 88 First judgment at [27]. 35 FRONEMAN J schools or previously privileged public Engelse privaatskole of voorheen schools.89 These “newly” educationally bevoorregte openbare skole.89 Hierdie privileged English second-language- ‘nuut’ opvoedkundig bevoorregte speakers include black, white and brown Engelse tweedetaalsprekers sluit swart-, people whose mother tongue is any of wit- en bruinmense in wie se moedertaal the other official languages, including enige van die ander amptelike tale, Afrikaans.90 Afrikaans inkluis, is.90 [77] The third, and most troubling, Die derde, mees kommerwekkende, consequence is that those mainly black gevolg is vir die hoofsaaklik swart en and brown people from the lowest socio- bruin mense op die laagste sosio- economic rung who attend under- ekonomiese skaal van ons samelewing. resourced and poorly staffed schools in Hulle woon die swakste toegeruste skole rural and marginalised urban by, beide in befondsing en personeel, in communities, will suffer most from die landelike en stedelik effectively having their language of gemarginaliseerde gemeenskappe en instruction being limited to English. Not word die meeste benadeel deur slegs only do they receive inadequate mother- Engels as hul keuse van onderrig. Hulle tongue education when they start their ontvang onvoldoende moeder- education, but the education that they taalonderrig wanneer hulle hul opvoeding receive in English is also often of a poor begin en die Engelse onderrig is ook quality.91 dikwels van ‘n swak gehalte.91 [78] The evidence before us shows Volgens die getuienis op rekord is that Afrikaans is the home language of a Afrikaans die moedertaal van ‘n significant proportion of brown people beduidende gedeelte van bruinmense in 89 See Spaull “Poverty and Privilege: Primary School Inequality in South Africa” (2013) 33 International Journal of Educational Development 436 at 437-8 and Van der Berg “Apartheid’s Enduring Legacy: Inequalities in Education” (2007) 16 Journal of African Economies 849 at 853 and 859-860. 90 See Soudien “‘Constituting the Class’: An Analysis of the Process of ‘Integration’ in South African Schools” in Chisholm (ed) Changing Class: Education and Social Change in Post-Apartheid South African Schools (HSRC Press, Cape Town 2004) at 89. 91 See Spaull above n 89 at 438. 36 FRONEMAN J in the Western Cape (and also the die Wes-Kaap (asook in die Noord- Northern Cape). It also shows that they Kaap). Dit toon ook aan dat hulle are predominantly working-class people hoofsaaklik van die werkersklas and that many of them are not proficient afkomstig is en dat baie van hulle nie in English. Statistically they are the Engels magtig of vlot daarin is nie. smallest of all population groups Statisties gesproke is hulle die proceeding to tertiary education.92 bevolkingsgroep met die kleinste Poverty means that it is more difficult verteenwoordiging in têrsiêre for them than for most even to aspire to opvoeding.92 Armoede beteken dat dit vir tertiary education. And if they do get hulle moeiliker is om bloot net te aspireer that far, they have only one university to na têrsiêre onderrig as vir meeste andere. go to in the Western Cape where As hulle ooit so ver sou kom, is daar net Afrikaans may be chosen as a medium een universiteit in die Wes-Kaap waar of instruction.93 Now, when they arrive Afrikaans nog gekies kan word as at Stellenbosch, they will find that their medium van onderrig.93 Wanneer hulle choice of medium of instruction is not as nou daar sou aankom, sal hulle vind dat comprehensive as those more privileged hul keuse van Afrikaans as medium van students who choose English. The grim onderrig nie so omvattend is as die meer message that seems to be sent to this bevooregte student wat Engels kies nie. segment of extremely marginalised Die bitter waarheid is dat hul armoede en brown people, is that, if they are be agterstand in Engels hulle selfs slegter af accommodated, they need to grow out of laat. poverty and learn English fast. 92 See Statistics South Africa Education Series Volume III: Educational Enrolment and Achievement, 2016 (Report No. 92-01-03, 2017) at 16 and 49 and Department of Higher Education and Training Post–School Education and Training Monitor: Macro–Indicator Trends (March 2019) at 27. 93 Under apartheid, the University of the Western Cape (UWC) was initiated as an Afrikaans university for brown people but the ideological premises of this plan were undermined when, increasingly, black students started attending it and the medium of instruction changed to English. It eventually, under Vice-Chancellor Jakes Gerwel, turned apartheid intentions further on their head by becoming a self-styled “university of the left”. See Antia and Van der Merwe “Speaking with a Forked Tongue about Multilingualism in the Language Policy of a South African University” (2019) 18 Language Policy 407 at 410-1 and Bassey “University Multilingualism: A Critical Narrative from the University of the Western Cape, South Africa” (2015) 36 Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 571 at 572 and 574-5. 37 FRONEMAN J [79] There is something deeply Dit is ’n diep ontstellende onreg. Wat is disturbing and wrong about this. What die vergelykende hoeveelheid mense in are the comparative numbers of this hierdie groep bruinmense teenoor daardie segment of brown people in swartmense wat uitgesluit was, of contradistinction to those black Africans uitgesluit gevoel het, deur die toepassing who felt or were excluded by the van dubbel-medium onderrig by application of dual medium instruction Stellenbosch? Die prentjie is nie duidelik at Stellenbosch University? The op die stukke nie. Dit was ook nie die evidence on record is not clear. Nor was middelpunt van Gelyke Kanse se this at the centre of Gelyke Kanse’s grondwetlike aanval op die 2016 Beleid constitutional challenge to the 2016 nie. Maar gesonde verstand dui aan dit is Language Policy. But common sense ‘n wesenlike probleem, nie net vir die inference indicates that it is a significant betrokke persone nie, maar vir alle problem, and not only for the people gemarginaliseerde en arm mense met ‘n concerned, but for all marginalised and moeder- of huistaal wat nie Engels is nie. poor people whose home language is not English. [80] Nor is this only a local problem. Dit is ook nie bloot ‘n plaaslike probleem It is an international one, mainly with nie. Dit is ‘n internasionale probleem, regard to the dominance of English, but hoofsaaklik gespits op die dominansie also in relation to other colonial van Engels, maar ook met betreeking tot languages like French, Spanish and ander koloniale tale soos Frans, Spaans en Portuguese.94 It is also a very specific Portugees.94 Voorts is dit ook ‘n post-colonial problem in Africa,95 not besondere post-koloniale probleem in only South Africa. Commenting on the Afrika,95 nie slegs in Suid-Afrika nie. In ‘n onlangse studie oor die 94 Kamwangamalu Language Policy and Economics: The Language Question in Africa (Palgrave Macmillan, London 2016) at ix. 95 See Mazrui “The World Bank, the Language Question and the Future of African Education” (1997) 38 Race & Class: A Journal for Black and Third World Liberation 35 and Ermelo above n 15 at para 50 and works cited in fn 30. 38 alarming rate of illiteracy in various kommerwekkende graad van African countries, a recent study noted: ongeskooldheid in verskeie Afrika lande merk die skrywer op: FRONEMAN J “In so-called Anglophone, Francophone, and Lusophone Africa, the prominence given to English, French and Portuguese respectively has rendered African languages instrumentally virtually valueless. What is at issue . . . is whether it can be deemed appropriate and economically justifiable to devote so many resources to education through the medium of a foreign language such as English, for instance, especially since centuries of experimentation with Western education has not resulted in mass literacy development in the African continent.”96 “In so-called Anglophone, Francophone, and Lusophone Africa, the prominence given to English, French and Portuguese respectively has rendered African languages instrumentally virtually valueless. What is at issue . . . is whether it can be deemed appropriate and economically justifiable to devote so many resources to education through the medium of a foreign language such as English, for instance, especially since centuries of experimentation with Western education has not resulted in mass literacy development in the African continent.”96 [81] Studies have shown that mother- Studies toon aan dat die noodsaaklike tongue-based education, generally and vaardighede vir kognitiewe in the more particular form of mother- taalkundigheid en interpersoonlike tongue-based multilingual education, kommunikasie beter ontwikkel onder develops the necessary skills of children moedertaalonderrig, in die algemeen en in for cognitive language proficiency and die besondere vorm van moedertaal interpersonal communicative skills gebaseerde multi-taal onderrig.97 96 Kamwangamalu above n 94 at 72. 39 FRONEMAN J better than when they have to learn these in a language not known to them.97 [82] The scientific literature suggests Wetenskaplike literatuur toon aan dat that, for mother-tongue-based effektiewe moedertaal gebaseerde multi- multilingual education to be effective, it taal onderrig minstens ses jaar se onderrig needs at least six years of teaching in the in die moedertaal verg, tesame met die primary language, together with the tweede taal as die vak wat aangeleer moet second language as a subject to be word vir die moontlike oorskakeling learned in order for an eventual daarna vir sekere akademiese transition to tuition in that second vakrigtings.98 Dit is egter nie die norm in language in some subjects.98 But that is Afrika nie en ook nie in ons suidelike deel not the norm in Africa nor in our daarvan nie.99 Hoekom nie? southern part of it.99 Why not? [83] Some ascribe it to elitism: Sommige skryf dit toe aan elitisme: “Often, although individuals vote for the promotion of a national language . . . in their personal lives they act in a way that subverts that vote. In many cases, they enrol their children in schools where access to the former colonial “Often, although individuals vote for the promotion of a national language . . . in their personal lives they act in a way that subverts that vote. In many cases, they enrol their children in schools where access to the former colonial language is 97 Id at 109. See further Spaull “Disentangling the Language Effect in South African Schools: Measuring the Impact of ‘Language of Assessment’ in Grade 3 literacy and numeracy” 2016 (6) South African Journal of Childhood Education 1 and Taylor and Von Vintel “Estimating the Impact of Language of Instruction in South African Primary Schools: A Fixed Effects Approach” (2016) 50 Economics of Education Review 75. 98 Kamwangamalu above n 94 at 109. 99 Id at 112. As Taylor and Von Vintel above n 97 at 76 observe, the choice of language of instruction in South African schools is left to School Governing Bodies but the prevailing practice, which is encouraged by national and provincial departments of education, is that most schools in which the majority of pupils are not English- or Afrikaans-speaking opt to use mother-tongue tuition in grades 1-3, and then transition to English as the language of instruction in grade 4. Spaull above n 97 at 5 shows that while roughly one third of students learn in English or Afrikaans in grades 1-3, this figure increases dramatically to 99% in grade 4. 40 language is ensured and, at the same time, demand equal favour for their vernacular. In the sardonic words of the Tunisian general secretary of secondary public education, ‘We do not cease to repeat ‘Arabization, Arabization,’ all the while sending our children FRONEMAN J ensured and, at the same time, demand equal favour for their vernacular. In the sardonic words of the Tunisian general secretary of secondary public education, ‘We do not cease to repeat ‘Arabization, Arabization,’ all the while sending our children to the to the [French private school [French private school system].”100 And: system].”100 En: “[T]he behaviour of the elite speaks more loudly than their tiresome demonstrations of the alleged cognitive and intellectual benefits of early mother-tongue education. The duplicity of language planners has caused the elite who are not involved in the language industry to be sceptical, ambivalent, apathetic, or even hostile to the use of African languages in education. This, in turn, has hardened the resolve of parents against mother-tongue education in many French-speaking countries.”101 “[T]he behaviour of the elite speaks more loudly than their tiresome demonstrations of the alleged cognitive and intellectual benefits of early mother tongue education. The duplicity of language planners has caused the elite who are not involved in the language industry to be sceptical, ambivalent, apathetic, or even hostile to the use of African languages in education. This, in turn, has hardened the resolve of parents against mother tongue education in many French-speaking countries.”101 100 Laitin Language Repertoire and State Construction in Africa (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1992) at 69, as cited in Kamwangamalu above n 94 at 139. 101 Koffi Paradigm Shift in Language Planning and Policy – Game Theoretic Solutions (De Gruyter Mouton, Boston 2012) at 13, as cited in Kamwangamalu above n 94 at 139. In Ermelo above n 15 at para 50, Moseneke DCJ referred to the “collateral irony” that learners— 41 FRONEMAN J [84] In South Africa, there is a further In Suid-Afrika is daar ‘n verdere rede om reason for the turn away from die rug te draai op moedertaalonderrig. mother-tongue education. The apartheid Die apartheidstelsel “used promotion of system “used promotion of the mother- the mother tongue principle, specifically tongue principle, specifically the the advancement of the indigenous advancement of the indigenous languages as subject and medium of languages as subject and medium of instruction, as a central instrument of the instruction, as a central instrument of the policy of divide and rule”.102 En die 1976 policy of divide and rule”.102 And the Soweto skoolopstande raak steeds diep 1976 Soweto school uprisings still aan ons nasionale bewussyn. resonate deeply in our national psyche. [85] So to change the perception of Om ontslae te raak van die stigma van mother-tongue education in this country apartheid in die persepsie van to one cleansed of the stigma of moedertaalonderrig in ons land sal ‘n apartheid will be a difficult task. But if gedugte taak wees. Maar as ons ooit we are ever to get past name-calling, verby moddergooi wil kom, inderdaad and, indeed, past the past, one must verby ons verlede wil kom, is dit become able to assess current noodsaaklik om huidige ongelykhede met inequalities anew. There is a dire nuwe oë te bekyk. Daar is ‘n gruwelike inequality in the quality of education ongelykheid in die graad van opvoeding received by less-resourced and wat onderbefondse en uitgeslote mense in marginalised people in rural areas and landelike en minder gegoede stedelike less-resourced urban townships. Many woonbuurte ontvang. Daar is baie wat “whose mother tongue is not English, but rather one of our indigenous languages, together with their parents have made a choice to be taught in a language other than their mother tongue. This occurs even though it is now well settled that, especially in the early years of formal teaching, mother tongue instruction is the foremost and the most effective medium of imparting education.” 102 Barkhuizen and Gough “Language Curriculum Development in South Africa: What Place for English?” (1996) 30 TESOL Quarterly 453-4. See also De Klerk “Mother-Tongue Education in South Africa: The Weight of History” (2002) 154 International Journal of the Sociology of Language 29. 42 FRONEMAN J contend that initial lengthier aanvoer dat langer aanvanklike mother-tongue multilingual education moedertaalonderrig hul benarde posisie would leave them better off, but that this sal verbeter, maar dit is steeds hul nie is denied them.103 They are thus obliged beskore nie.103 Hulle moet dus genoeë to make do with English language daarmee neem om in Engels taalonderrig instruction from a very early stage in te ontvang vanaf ‘n uiters vroeë stadium. their education. [86] It is a hard and uncomfortable Dit is ‘n harde en ongenaakbare truth, but the English education young werklikheid, maar die Engelse opvoeding people in this position receive is wat jong kinders in hierdie posisie generally of a lower standard than what ontvang is in die algemeen van ‘n more privileged children in private high- swakker gehalte as wat meer bevoorregte fee schools and better-resourced urban kinders in onafhanklike privaatskole en public schools receive.104 And because beter toegeruste stedelike openbare skole of their marginalisation they carry less ontvang.104 En as gevolg van hul political clout to alleviate their situation. uitsluiting verminder hul direkte politieke So the cycle of marginalisation mag om die toedrag van sake te verander. continues, and is reinforced. For them, So gaan die siklus van marginalisering the “choice” of English as medium of dus voort en word dit al hoe dieper instruction at all levels, from primary to gevestig. Vir hulle is die ‘keuse’ van tertiary education, is not free but forced Engels as medium van onderrig nie and the outcome bleak. Diminishing the vrywillig nie, maar geforseerd, en die Afrikaans offering at one of the two vooruitsigte skraal. Verskraling van die universities that still provides it will be Afrikaanse aanbieding by een van die cold comfort. twee universiteite waar dit nog aangebied word, sal bitter min vir hulle help. 103 See Brock-Utne “Language of Instruction and Student Performance: New Insights from Research in Tanzania and South Africa” (2007) 53 International Review of Education 509 at 526. 104 Spaull above n 89 at 438. 43 [87] What is lost when one’s language Wat verloor ons as ‘n taal vergaan? Laat is lost? Let others speak. andere praat. FRONEMAN J Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o: Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o: “Language as communication “Language as communication and as culture are then products and as culture are then products of each other. Communication of each other. Communication creates culture: culture is a creates culture: culture is a means of communication. means of communication. Language carries culture, and Language carries culture, and culture carries, particularly culture carries, particularly through orature and literature, through orature and literature, the entire body of values by the entire body of values by which we come to perceive which we come to perceive ourselves and our place in the ourselves and our place in the world. How people perceive world. How people perceive themselves and affects how they themselves and affects how they look at their culture, at their look at their culture, at their places politics and at the social places politics and at the social production of wealth, at their production of wealth, at their entire relationship to nature and entire relationship to nature and to other beings. Language is thus to other beings. Language is inseparable from ourselves as a thus inseparable from ourselves community of human beings as a community of human beings with a specific form and with a specific form and character, a specific history, a character, a specific history, a specific relationship to the specific relationship to the world.”105 world.”105 Breyten Breytenbach: Breyten Breytenbach: 105 Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o Decolonising the Mind: The Politics of Language in African Literature (James Currey, London 1986) at 16. 44 FRONEMAN J “Taal is mens en mens is taal. “Taal is mens en mens is taal. Afrikaans is die lewende en veranderende en andersmakende uitvloeisel van uiteenlopende en by tye Afrikaans is die lewende en veranderende en andersmakende uitvloeisel van uiteenlopende en by tye botsende geskiedenisse. botsende geskiedenisse. Hierdie diverse oorspronge Hierdie diverse oorspronge gekenmerk deur aanpassing, verowering, onderdrukking, oorlewing, weerstand en omvorming – afkomstig uit Europese dialekte, Maleis, Portugees, seemanstaal, Khoi tale, Arabiese Afrikaans, die Koran en die Bybel, die howe en kerke en kombuise en wingerde en fabrieke – het gemaak dat Afrikaans ‘n unieke hibridisering vergestalt as Kreoolse taal wat by uitstek die verwoording is van die komplekse wêreld waarin ons beweeg.”106 gekenmerk deur aanpassing, verowering, onderdrukking, oorlewing, weerstand en omvorming – afkomstig uit Europese dialekte, Maleis, Portugees, seemanstaal, Khoi tale, Arabiese Afrikaans, die Koran en die Bybel, die howe en kerke en kombuise en wingerde en fabrieke – het gemaak dat Afrikaans ‘n unieke hibridisering vergestalt as Kreoolse taal wat by uitstek die verwoording is van die komplekse wêreld waarin ons beweeg.”106 [88] Without your own language, Sonder ‘n eie taal is deel van ons kultuur culture is lost, a sense of self is lost. And verlore, ons gewaarwording van onsself once that happens, diversity is lost. We vernietig. En as dit gebeur, word will lose the belief set out in the diversiteit verloor. Ons verloor dan die 106 Breyten Breytenbach’s Supporting and Expert Affidavit in this matter, contained in volume 12 of the Afrikaans record, page 1387 at para 8. The passage can be translated as follows: “Language is humanity and humanity is language. Afrikaans is the living and changing and change-making outcome of diverging and at times conflicting histories. These diverse origins characterised by adaptation, conquest, subjugation, oppression, survival, resistance, transformation – descended from European dialects, Malay, Portuguese, seafarer language, Khoi languages, Arabic Afrikaans, the Qur’an and the Bible, the courts and churches and kitchens and hospitals and vineyards and factories of our country – have made Afrikaans a unique hybridisation that finds unity as a Creole language which is the verbalisation of the complex world in which we move.” 45 FRONEMAN J Preamble of the Constitution “that South geloof verwoord in die aanhef tot die Africa belongs to all who live in it, Grondwet dat Suid-Afrika aan almal wat united in our diversity”. hier leef behoort, verenig in ons diversiteit. [89] It really is not obscure. It is about Dit is regtig eenvoudig. Dis om gemaklik being comfortable in one’s own skin. met jou eie self te wees. Enige plek en Anywhere and everywhere. Amongst orals. Om tussen familie en vriende die your family and friends, talking the taal te praat wat ons liefhet. Om winkel language you love. Going to a shop and toe te gaan en beskaafdheid te verwag as expecting courtesy if you hope to be jy hoop om in jou taal bedien te word. En served in your language. And if that as dit nie moontlik is nie, om beskaafd en cannot be, to be courteous and friendly vriendelik te verduidelik waarom jy in explaining why you wanted it in the daarvoor gehoop het. En as iemand met first place. And if someone else talks to jou praat in ‘n taal praat wat jy nie magtig you in a language with which you are is nie, om verskoning te maak en te sê jy unfamiliar, to apologise and say you’ll hoop om volgende keer beter te kan doen. try to do better next time. [90] But also, and as importantly, in Net so belangrik, ook so in die openbare the public life of our country, there lewe van ons land. Daar behoort geen should be no need to apologise or feel rede te wees vir enigeen om verskoning te embarrassed when you speak or write in maak of ongemaklik te voel as jy praat of your own language, an official language skryf in jou eie taal, ‘n amptelike taal van of our country. All of us must learn to ons land, nie. Ons moet almal leer om dit do it in a way that minimises the te doen op ‘n manier wat die uitsluiting exclusion of others, but it should not van andere verminder, maar dit beteken mean that we are silenced from speaking nie ons word die swye in ons praat, ons it, writing, using it, as long as we make skrywe, ons gebruik daarvan, opgelê nie. sure, to the best of our abilities, that we Solank ons seker maak, so goed as wat include others when we do so. ons kan, dat ons nie andere uitsluit 46 FRONEMAN J Otherwise it becomes an exercise of wanneer ons dit doen nie. Want dan word power.107 dit uitoefening van mag.107 [91] Successful mother-tongue or Suksesvolle moeder- of huistaal vernacular language education is not opvoeding en onderrig kan gedoen word. easily attained, but it can be done. It has Lande in Asië, Europa en in Kanada in been done in some countries in Asia, Noord-Amerika het dit bewys.108 Die Europe and in North America in ondersteuning van Amharies in Ethiopië, Canada.108 In Africa, the support of kiSwahili in Tanzanië en Somalies in Amharic in Ethiopia, kiSwahili in Somalië is toonbeelde daarvan in Afrika. Tanzania and Somali in Somalia count Ironies egter, is die “clear-cut and as examples, but, deeply ironically, the strongest case of successful vernacular “clear-cut and strongest case of language education in Africa . . . successful vernacular language Afrikaans in South Africa, under the education in Africa is Afrikaans in South apartheid regime.”109 Faktore wat daartoe Africa, under the apartheid regime.”109 gelei het was die lojaliteit van die taal se This came about from the language sprekers en massiewe politiese en loyalty of its speakers and from the materiële staatshulp.110 Dit is omskep in massive political and material support it die toenemende gebruik daarvan in die received from the state.110 That ekonomie en ander openbare instellings, translated into its increased use in the insluitende universiteite. Dit is een van economy and other public institutions, die min kleiner wêreldtale wat ontwikkel including universities. It became one of het tot ‘n erkende akademiese taal. the few smaller world languages to be 107 At the 1967 National Union of South African Students (NUSAS) conference at Rhodes University, Steve Biko stood up to deliver his regional report in isiXhosa to drive home the point about Black students’ alienation from the NUSAS agenda. The incident was the start of a separate black consciousness student movement, the South African Students Organisation (SASO). See South African History Online “National Union of South African Students (NUSAS) available at https://www.sahistory.org.za/people/stephen-bantu-biko. 108 Kamwangamalu above n 94 at 197-202. 109 Id at 197. 110 Id. 47 FRONEMAN J developed and then used as an academic language. [92] An example is law. Textbooks ‘n Voorbeeld daarvan is Afrikaans se were written in Afrikaans by Afrikaans ontwikkeling as ’n regstaal. Handboeke legal academics that played an important is in Afrikaans dear Afrikaaanse part in the development of the law.111 akademici geskryf, met ‘n groot en Before 1947, only a few Appellate belangrike invloed op die ontwikkeling Division judgments were written in van ons reg.111 Voor 1947 is slegs ‘n paar Afrikaans.112 Between 1947 to 1994 a Appèlhof uitsprake in Afrikaans greater number of judgments were geskryf.112 Vanaf 1947 tot 1994 is veel written in Afrikaans particularly if it was meer uitsprake in Afrikaans geskryf, veral the language of the parties.113 Since waar dit die litigante se moedertaal 1994, progressively fewer judgments was.113 Sedert 1994 al hoe minder. In have been written in Afrikaans. In this hierdie Hof is drie gepubliseerde Court, three judgments have been uitsprake in Afrikaans geskryf en written in Afrikaans and simultaneously terselfdertyd in Engels vertaal.114 translated into English.114 Maybe this Miskien is hierdie die laaste een. Dit sal one will be the last. That will be a sad ‘n kwade dag wees. Ek hoop dit sal nie ending and I hope it does not happen. gebeur nie. [93] As far as I am aware, not a single Sover ek weet is daar nog nie ‘n uitspraak judgment of this Court has been written in enige van die ander inheemse Afrika in any of the other official indigenous tale in hierdie Hof geskryf nie. African languages. 111 See, for example, a reflection on the contribution of JC de Wet to South African jurisprudence in Du Plessis and Lubbe (eds) A Man of Principle: The Life and Legacy of JC de Wet (Juta, Cape Town 2013). 112 Harms “Law and Language in a Multilingual Society” (2012) 15 Potchefstroom Electronic Law Journal 21 at 25. 113 Id. 114 Apart from this judgment, see AfriForum CC above n 25; Daniels v Scribante [2017] ZACC 13; 2017 (4) SA 341 (CC); 2017 (8) BCLR 949 (CC); and Gauteng Provincial Legislature above n 7. 48 FRONEMAN J [94] The point of this is that the Die Grondwet bemagtig elkeen van ons Constitution enables each one of us to be om trots te wees op ons taal. Ons hoef nie proud of our language. We need not een taal te vernietig om die ander te destroy one language to advance others. bevorder nie. Dit beteken wel ja, vir wit Yes, that means, for white Afrikaans- Afrikaanssprekendes, dat ons sensitief speakers, that we must acknowledge and moet handel met die feit dat Afrikaans as be sensitive to the fact that Afrikaans magsintrument in onderdrukking gebruik was used as a means of power and is. Dit moet erken word voordat ons te oppression before we high-handedly gou begin kla oor hoe ons nou behandel complain of how we are treated now. word. Maar dit keer nie dat ons, en beslis But that does not disqualify us, and nie bruin en swart Afrikaanssprekendes, certainly not brown and black nie mag trots wees op ons taal nie. Daar Afrikaans-speakers, from being proud of lê ‘n lang pad voor voordat wye our language. A long way lies ahead to aanvaarding gevind sal word dat gain widespread acceptance of Afrikaans “die verwoording is van die Afrikaans, as the verbalisation, or komplekse wêreld waarin ons embodiment, of the complex world we beweeg”,115 maar dit begin reeds gebeur. live in (“die verwoording . . . van die komplekse wêreld waarin ons beweeg”),115 but it is already starting to happen. [95] And perhaps more importantly, it Dit beteken ook, en miskien meer means that more assertion by our fellow belangriker, dat ons mede Suid- South Africans whose home languages Afrikaners wie se huistale die ander are the other indigenous, African, inheemse Afrika tale is, hul eie reg onder languages should be welcomed when die Grondwet meer behoort te gebruik. they assert their own right under the Waar ookal, in enige plek en orals. As dit Constitution to use their languages wit mense wat nooit ‘n poging aangewend 115 See above at [88]. 49 FRONEMAN J anywhere and everywhere. If that het om enige van daardie tale te verstaan causes white people who have never nie ongemaklik maak, is dit hulle verlies. made the effort to understand any of As dit ander inheemse Afrika- those languages uncomfortable, that taalsprekers sal aanmoedig om die reflects on their own poverty. If it inherente waarde van hul eie taal te causes indigenous African language- bevorder, is dit ook ons Grondwet se speakers increasingly to assert the belofte. inherent value of their own, the Constitution promises its support. [96] It is often stated that without legal Dit word dikwels beweer dat sonder back-up minority languages will wither geregtelike ondersteuning minder- away and die.116 But that need not be heidstale uiteindelik sal verdwyn.116 inevitable. Imagine a Stellenbosch Maar dit behoort nie onvermydelik so te University where the current emotional wees nie. Laat die verbeelding ‘n and often odious public oppositional oomblik loop. Verbeel ’n Stellenbosch discourse is displaced. Imagine a waar die huidige emosionele en dikwels Stellenbosch University where there is a onsmaaklike openbare strydige debat community working together to ensure verplaas word deur ‘n gemeenskap wat that the university alumni and other saamwerk. Alumni en ander sympathetic supporters raise awareness welwillendes kom bymekaar om ’n of the plight of less-resourced siXhosa- gewaarwording aan te wakker wat klem lê and black and brown Afrikaans- op die nood van minder toegeruste speaking communities that need access siXhosa- en bruin en swart to its academic excellence. And then do Afrikaanssprekende gemeenskappe om something “reasonably practical” about toegang te kry tot die universiteit se it, by raising funds for the progressive akademiese uitnemendheid. En dat iets institutionalisation of isiXhosa, “redelik prakties” daaromtrent gedoen 116 Smit “‘Collateral Irony’ and ‘Insular Construction’: Justifying Single-Medium Schools, Equal Access and Quality Education” (2011) 27 SAJHR 398 at 416, citing Skutnabb-Kangas Linguistic Genocide in Education - or Worldwide Diversity and Human Rights? (Routledge, Abingdon 2000). But compare Bishop above n 81 at 86. 50 FRONEMAN J Afrikaans or English as their choice of word, naamlik befondsing word ge- medium of instruction on an equal inisieer om die progressiewe basis.117 institusionalisering van isiXhosa, Afrikaans en Engels as gelyke taalkeuses by die universiteit te verwesenlik.117 [97] And imagine a Constitutional Verbeel ‘n Grondwetlike Hof waar Court where judgments are written not uitsprake nie uitsluitlik in Engels geskryf exclusively in English, but in a variety word nie, maar in ‘n verskeidenheid van of the indigenous official languages, ander inheemse tale, met gelyktydige with simultaneous translations in vertalings in Engels in die aangrensende English in the column next to it, as in the kolom, soos in die Kanadese hofverslae. Canadian law reports. Would that not be ’n Geleentheid vir aanvanklike an occasion for joyous celebration at feesviering, voordat ons dit later first, before we embrace it, mundanely, doodgewoon aanvaar as die norm. as the accepted norm? 117 At school level, an Afrikaans education initiative called MOS (for the Afrikaans equivalent of “Mother Tongue in Independent Schools”) has been started. It is the product of a long process in which all the organisations involved in Afrikaans education have participated. As one of its progenitors, Theuns Eloff, explains in his comment “Can Mother-Tongue Education in SA Schools Become a Reality?” Politicsweb (14 August 2019), available at https://www.politicsweb.co.za/comment/can-mothertongue-education-in-south-african-school: “The word ‘mos’ also refers to the plant that grows almost everywhere and needs little moisture to thrive; and then also to the unique Afrikaans word used as a confirmation of the obvious: it is ‘mos’ beautiful! . . . The MOS Initiative . . . will create a network of sustainable, independent Afrikaans schools that will operate across South Africa - open to all, community-oriented, affordable and with high standards and innovative learning . . . to ensure that Afrikaans-speaking learners are well equipped for their future - in line with international research - consideration is being given to making English first language and another African language compulsory in MOS schools. It will promote multilingualism and equip learners to play an active role in the broader South African community. Afrikaans learners who are fluent in another African language and can speak fluently will also help overcome the stigma of Afrikaans schools being racist. It will take a lot of time and effort for this ambitious project to succeed, but there is consensus among leaders in the Afrikaans education arena of the urgency to make a start now.” 51 FRONEMAN J [98] Is that “reasonably impractical”? Is dit “redelik onprakties”? Ek dink nie I do not think so. To say it inevitably is, so nie. Om te aanvaar dit is onvermydelik will be to give up on part of our so is om deel van ons Grondwetlike constitutional dream. We need not let it droom prys te gee. Ons hoef dit nie te laat happen. gebeur nie. 52 For the Applicants: For Respondents: J Heunis SC and K Pillay instructed by West & Rossouw Attorneys J Muller SC and N de Jager instructed by Cluver Markotter Inc